Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies

This book stimulates discussions on cultural and educational exchanges between rival states and societies, raises awareness of the potential positive and negative impacts of such exchanges, and serves as a basis for future research and program design. Cultural and educational exchanges in various forms have existed for millennia. Yet it was not until the unprecedented human devastation of two world wars catalyzed a sense of urgency around the world that a new era of cultural and educational exchange programs emerged as a means of easing tensions between rival states and societies. This book is motivated by the need for critical research that can contribute to building a more comprehensive understanding of the issues at stake. It begins with a historical overview of cultural and educational exchanges between rival societies, an assessment of their positive and negative impacts, and a review of some of the most prominent theories in relevant fields. It then presents a diverse set of case studies, in which authors consider not only the real or expected benefits of such exchanges but also the potentially negative impacts, challenges faced along the way, and broader effects on the rival societies at large. The states and societies considered include North Korea and the West, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel and the Palestinian territories, India and Pakistan, China and Taiwan, Cuba and the US, and China and the US. Taken together, the chapters demonstrate that exchanges have observable impacts on the individuals and institutions involved. Moreover, they reveal that exchanges have the capacity, in some cases, to affect broader social and political change at the family, community, society, or state level, but these impacts are indirect and typically require long-term concerted efforts by those involved.

Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3>.

South China Sea Event Timeline: 1900–1969

The South China Sea Event Timeline aims to become the world’s most accurate and comprehensive chronological reference about the history of the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes. From major incidents at sea to meetings and statements of world leaders, events of all types are included in the event timeline, the complete volumes of which span over a century of history in the region. Today, the event timeline is one of the few indispensable sources of information to date for policymakers, researchers, students, the media, and others interested in the disputes.

The South China Sea Think Tank (SCSTT) is an affiliated program of the Asia-Pacific Policy Research Association (APPRA), an independent, non-profit organization promoting dialogue, research, and education about policies in the Asia-Pacific region.

By purchasing the printed or digital versions of the South China Sea Event Timeline, you are supporting the aims of these institutions as they endeavor to facilitate constructive dialogue and exchange, produce high-quality research, and promote education in the Asia-Pacific region and around the world.

Jonathan Spangler and Olga Cachia (eds.), South China Sea Event Timeline: 1900–1969, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Asia-Pacific Policy Research Association, August 2018.

Enterprises, Localities, People, and Policy in the South China Sea: Beneath the Surface

This volume takes readers beneath the surface of the South China Sea by exploring critical but under-researched issues related to the maritime territorial disputes. It draws attention to the importance of private sector, civil society, and subnational actors’ roles in the disputes and sheds light on key policy issues that are addressed less often in the literature. By going beyond mainstream analyses focused solely on issues of traditional security, resource economics, and international law, it offers a fresh and engaging look at the South China Sea disputes. The book is divided into five parts – historical foundations, enterprises, localities, people, and policy – and its chapters investigate historiography in the region, the global defense industry’s role as beneficiary of the disputes, tourism as a territorial strategy, the roles of provinces and local governments, disaster management, confidence-building measures, environmental and science diplomacy, and other topics seldom discussed in other analyses of the South China Sea disputes. The book’s diverse content and fresh perspectives make it an essential read not only for policymakers and those in the international relations community but also for all others interested in gaining a more well-rounded understanding of the many issues at stake in the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, Dean Karalekas, and Moises Lopes de Souza (eds.), Enterprises, Localities, People, and Policy in the South China Sea: Beneath the Surface, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, <doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62828-8>.

Chinese Education Models in a Global Age

China’s rise, an increasing emphasis on international education benchmarking, and a global recognition of East Asian countries’ success in this regard have brought the issue of Chinese education to the forefront of public consciousness. In particular, the concept of a “Chinese education model” is one that has sparked debate and quickly become a major focus of education research around the world, especially in light of regional achievements vis-à-vis university rankings, bibliometric indices, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and other such benchmarks. Chinese Education Models in a Global Age tackles this controversial issue head on by synthesizing a diversity of analyses from a world-class team of twenty-seven authors. It reveals that Chinese education models, which are present in many different geographic and institutional contexts, have an important influence on social and institutional norms as well as individual belief systems and behaviors in China and beyond. The first of its kind, this edited volume establishes a foundation for future research while providing a nuanced and tightly integrated compilation of differing perspectives on the role and impact of Chinese education models worldwide. It is essential reading for all scholars, policymakers, students, parents, and educators interested in the rising demographic and economic influence of people of Chinese descent on education around the world.

Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Chinese Education Models in a Global Age, Singapore: Springer, 2016, <doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0330-1>.

South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects

On July 12, 2016, the Tribunal in the South China Sea arbitration case issued its Award, officially bringing closure to the arbitral proceedings initiated by the Philippines against China in early 2013. In the Award, the Tribunal’s conclusions overwhelmingly supported the Philippines’ positions regarding almost all of the fifteen submissions in its Memorial. The Tribunal also rejected or opted not to take into account the vast majority of China’s positions as elaborated through official statements and was similarly not persuaded by arguments issued or evidence presented by Taiwan.

The Award, especially due to relevant countries’ policy responses and the enduring controversy over its content, has significant implications for the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes, which remain one of the most potent and complex issues affecting stability and security in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. In the post-arbitration context, rival claimants and major stakeholders have been forced to recalibrate their rhetoric, strategies, and policies in order to safeguard their interests and rights in the maritime area while maintaining an image internationally that is conducive to achieving these aims.

This report, entitled South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, builds upon the success of the first South China Sea Lawfare report that was published in early 2016. By bringing together an international team of experts writing on the different approaches of each claimant and stakeholder, it aims to serve as a more inclusive reference on post-arbitration South China Sea policy issues than the many other analyses published in the aftermath of the Award.

In Part I: Introduction, the report begins by giving a brief overview of the arbitral proceedings in historical perspective and summarizing the legal positions of the parties involved and the Tribunal’s conclusions as described in its two awards. In Part II: Rival Claimants and Part III: Major Stakeholders, the chapters focus on (1) the specific policy approaches of each country or actor; (2) the implications of the Award for each; (3) the legal, diplomatic, and security policy options available to them; and (4) their future prospects in the post-arbitration context of the South China Sea. In Part IV: Conclusion, the report explores the implications of the Award for international maritime law and the future of maritime territorial disputes. By encouraging and compiling a diversity of views on the South China Sea, the editors hope that this report will serve over the coming years as a resource for policymakers, a foundation for future research, and an example of constructive international collaboration in the midst of the disputes.

Fu-Kuo Liu, Keyuan Zou, Shicun Wu, and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, April 20, 2017.

South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case

As tensions in the South China Sea have risen, the Philippines v. China arbitration case and the Philippines’ decision, after many years of unsuccessful bilateral negotiations, to engage in lawfare have become a focal point of the maritime territorial disputes, leading many state and non-state actors to become increasingly involved in and vocal about South China Sea issues. The controversial nature of the issue has resulted in a proliferation of heated diplomatic and military interactions and, in many instances, hindered meaningful cooperation between relevant stakeholders. This report, as the result of a collaborative effort between authors from ten countries, aims to serve as an example of constructive international cooperation on South China Sea issues in the midst of heightened regional tensions.

Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, January 29, 2016.

The History and Impacts of Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies

Cultural and educational exchanges are widely recognized today for the benefits they bring to the individuals and institutions involved. Advances in transportation, communications, and information technologies have transformed what was once an activity accessible only to a select few into one that is feasible for an increasing percentage of the world’s population. Although most exchanges take place between states and societies that are diplomatically and politically friendly to one another, cultural and educational exchanges between rival states and societies have become increasingly common and visible, particularly over the past 70 years. In their myriad forms, such exchanges have the potential not only to affect the individuals and institutions involved but also their communities and societies at large. To serve as a foundation for the chapters that follow, this chapter first outlines the emergence of cultural and educational exchange programs in the twentieth century, which are often inspired by ideas of ancient origin, catalyzed by the academic formalization of their ideals, adapted to modern institutional frameworks, and influenced by emerging issues that will continue to reshape the world in the coming years. It then highlights the two faces of cultural and educational exchanges, first covering the positive effects, which include their potential to reveal common humanity, reduce mistrust, challenge stereotypes, and inspire critical reflexivity. It then discusses the negative effects of exchanges between rival societies, which include their possibility to advance ulterior political motives, reinforce prejudices, miscalculate needs and impacts, encourage human capital imbalances, and threaten the availability of local employment opportunities. The chapter then concludes with a discussion of the aims of the book and a look ahead at the significant role of cultural and educational exchanges in the years to come.

Jonathan Spangler, “The History and Impacts of Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, 1–21, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_1>.

Meteorological Educational Exchanges Between Rival States: Cuba–US and China–Taiwan–US Cooperation

Meteorology has long played an important role as the subject of educational exchanges not only between countries with friendly relations but also between those whose relations are characterized by tensions or conflict. Meteorological educational exchanges have taken place between national weather services, higher education institutions, and other research organizations throughout the world and have managed to endure where other exchanges would otherwise be difficult or impossible to maintain. This chapter first explores the reasons for meteorology’s capacity to serve as a medium for institutional and people-to-people exchanges, even between rival states or societies. It then focuses on the two major case studies of Cuba–US and China–Taiwan–US meteorological educational exchanges. Each case study highlights the historical context of the exchanges, the reasons that they could take place amid diplomatic and political tensions, the challenges in implementation, and their impacts on people-to-people and institutional relations. These are complemented by firsthand, empirical evidence from personal communications with the institutional leaders, scientists, and educators directly involved in these exchanges. The chapter then concludes with a discussion of the extent to which international cooperation on meteorological education and training between rival states can continue to serve a constructive role in the future.

Jonathan Spangler and Timothy Spangler, “Meteorological Educational Exchanges Between Rival States: Cuba–US and China–Taiwan–US Cooperation,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, 129–143, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_8>.

Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies: Challenges in Implementation and Strategies for Success

As the preceding chapters in this volume show, cultural and educational exchanges between rival states and societies are diverse in nature and can have significant positive and negative impacts on those involved and their societies more broadly. This concluding chapter first outlines some of the key challenges involved in implementing exchange programs, which are inherently case-specific and can have major impacts on the feasibility and outcomes of those programs. Taking these into consideration, the chapter then provides overviews of some strategies for success in implementing cultural and educational exchanges that are feasible and sustainable and have lasting positive impacts on those involved.

Phillip Lee Henderson and Jonathan Spangler, “Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies: Challenges in Implementation and Strategies for Success,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, 145–164, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_9>.

Undisputed Winners: The Benefits and Beneficiaries of the South China Sea Maritime Territorial Disputes

This chapter argues that, while states continue to vie for control of maritime territory and resources in the South China Sea, it is already clear who the real winners are. The global defense industry, comprising elements of government, private, and state-run enterprises, academia, and civil society, has benefited greatly from the developments and interactions in the region and, regardless of the outcome of the disputes, will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. This analysis begins by outlining the roles of the constituents of the global defense industry as beneficiaries of the disputes. It then takes a closer look at the different forms in which the benefits are manifested. It is structured upon the premise that these benefits are both material and immaterial in nature, the former including immediate financial gains, future investment guarantees, and sub-industry creation and expansion, and the latter including securitization strategy prioritization and reduced relative risk.

Jonathan Spangler, “Undisputed Winners: The Benefits and Beneficiaries of the South China Sea Maritime Territorial Disputes,” in Jonathan Spangler, Dean Karalekas, and Moises Lopes de Souza (eds.), Enterprises, Localities, People, and Policy in the South China Sea: Beneath the Surface, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, <doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62828-8_2>.

South China Sea Policy Options in the Post-Arbitration Context

The arbitration case and the Tribunal’s conclusions as outlined in the Award have major legal, diplomatic, and security implications for rival claimants and major stakeholders in the South China Sea. As a result, states and other actors must consider their relevant policy options and proceed accordingly. This chapter begins by providing a condensed historical overview of the arbitral proceedings, which are summarized by dividing the timeline into the pre-arbitration context, the Philippines’ initiation and China’s response, the Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility of October 2015, and the Award of July 2016 on the merits and remaining issues in the arbitration case. It then considers the implications of the Award and the related common policy options available to multiple claimants and stakeholders. Legally, these implications and policy options relate to the status of features, sovereignty issues, maritime rights and entitlements, and obligations in maritime spaces. Diplomatically, they involve recalibrating diplomatic relations and preferences regarding the means of dispute settlement. In terms of security, they include legal justification for military operations, emboldened securitization efforts, and opportunities for confidence-building and cooperation. In considering these issues, the chapter aims not to provide an exhaustive account of all relevant implications and policy options but to serve as a foundation for the chapters that follow as well as future research and policy discussions on the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, “South China Sea Policy Options in the Post-Arbitration Context,” in Fu-Kuo Liu, Keyuan Zou, Shicun Wu, and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, April 20, 2017, pp. 7–19.

Post-Arbitration South China Sea: Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects

Taiwan has taken a multifaceted approach to the Philippines v. China arbitration case and the South China Sea more broadly that has attempted to highlight its commitment to abiding by international law and promoting regional cooperation by shelving sovereignty disputes. The extent to which the Tribunal’s conclusions in its Award were detrimental to Taiwanese interests and addressed issues beyond the Philippines’ fifteen submissions took many policymakers, analysts, and legal experts by surprise. For Taiwan, the Award threatens to have profound diplomatic implications for its (1) capacity to participate in dispute management negotiations, (2) leverage in pushing for regional cooperation, (3) relations with mainland China, and (4) relations with countries and other actors that have sided with the Tribunal despite the controversy regarding some of its conclusions. In the post-arbitration context, Taiwan’s diplomatic policy options have become more limited, less feasible in terms of near- term implementation, and will require greater domestic and international commitment to accomplish in the long term. Nevertheless, the ROC government still has various policy options available to it. This chapter considers three of its diplomatic policy options for which it must make important choices in the post-arbitration context, including (1) whether it should maintain a hardline or flexible position on issues of territorial sovereignty, entitlements, and the inclusivity of international legal and diplomatic mechanisms; (2) whether or not – and if so, how – it should continue its vociferous advocacy of the “shelve disputes, promote cooperation” framework; and (3) whether or not it should clarify its eleven-dash line territorial claims to be in accordance with the Tribunal’s interpretations of international law.

Jonathan Spangler, “Post-Arbitration South China Sea: Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects,” in Fu-Kuo Liu, Keyuan Zou, Shicun Wu, and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, April 20, 2017, pp. 125–141.

Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Background, Legal Perspectives, and International Responses

This chapter first provides an overview of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereafter, “UNCLOS” or “the Convention”), the role of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague, and a background and timeline of The Republic of the Philippines v. The People’s Republic of China (hereafter, “Philippines v. China”) arbitration case. It then gives a condensed overview of the legal perspectives discussed in Part II and the international diplomatic and security responses discussed in Part III of the report.

Jonathan Spangler and Olga Daksueva, “Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Background, Legal Perspectives, and International Responses,” in Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, January 29, 2016, pp. 17–37.

Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Taiwan’s Diplomatic and Security Responses

The extent and significance of Taiwan’s territorial claims, its unique political relationship with mainland China, and its position as a key aspect of the U.S. government’s strategy in the Asia-Pacific region make Taiwan an important player both in the arbitration case and in the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes more broadly. Throughout the Philippines v. China arbitral proceedings, the government of the Republic of China (ROC) has responded diplomatically by reiterating its sovereignty claims, raising awareness about its legal and historical perspectives, reaffirming its commitment to abiding by international law and guaranteeing freedom of navigation and overflight, and positioning itself as a peacemaker in the South China Sea disputes. The ROC’s security responses have included a continuation of its defensive security posture and an emphasis on island development for civilian and humanitarian purposes while continuing to consider a possible transition of forces on one of its occupied features. Meanwhile, the upcoming change in political administration on the island has raised some questions as to whether or not there will be a resulting shift in approach towards the South China Sea. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Taiwan’s Diplomatic and Security Responses,” in Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, January 29, 2016, pp. 127–137.

Lessons for the South China Sea: Areas of Compatibility, Incompatibility, and Ambiguity

Since 2013, the Philippines v. China arbitration case has been a key focal point of the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes, and the turbulence created by the arbitral proceedings has sent ripples far beyond the waters of the region. The case itself has significant implications for countries’ sovereignty claims, the delimitation of maritime boundaries, and the activities that take place in maritime spaces. Perhaps even more significant, however, are the responses that the case has generated as state and non-state actors around the world have become increasingly involved in and vocal about the issue. These responses, including the new dialogues they open, the diplomatic relations they strengthen and weaken, and the positive and negative feelings attached to them, have significant implications for the political relations between claimants and non-claimant stakeholders involved in the disputes and the future of regional stability. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Lessons for the South China Sea: Areas of Compatibility, Incompatibility, and Ambiguity,” in Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, January 29, 2016, pp. 159–167.

Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan

Recent years have seen an explosion in the popularity of online education, yet the impacts of online education on existing education models, teachers, and students are not fully understood. While the rise of online education is evident in countries around the world, students in East Asian societies have been particularly active in their online educational pursuits. This chapter seeks to further understand the significance of these trends by using empirical evidence from a nationwide survey conducted in collaboration with the Election Study Center in Taiwan. In particular, it aims to identify the impacts of online education on the existing education model, teachers, and students. The results indicated that online education has had major impacts on the existing education model. It was seen as more Western, active, top-down, and focused on knowledge acquisition than offline education, which suggests that offline education represents a significant departure from the approaches to teaching and learning that locals have come to expect. The perceived impacts on teachers included an encouragement of teaching quality improvement and lessened the overall burden. As for students, the perceived impacts have been mostly positive, with respondents viewing online education as encouraging independent learning, providing more opportunities to be critical of teachers, and not necessarily discouraging creativity or asking questions. Respondents also suggested that online education supplemented the breadth, depth, and richness of educational opportunities, suggesting that some respondents viewed local educational opportunities as inadequate. Detrimental impacts on students included decreased opportunities for face-to-face interaction with peers and teachers as well as mentions of assessment problems and student apathy.

Jonathan Spangler, “Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Chinese Education Models in a Global Age, Singapore: Springer, 2016, pp. 177–192, <doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0330-1_13>.

Chinese Education Models in a Global Age: Myth or Reality?

The extent to which a distinct Chinese education model can be identified is the subject of much debate. Among the many studies that approach the question, there is a tendency to be selective in elaborating the constituent elements of what could be viewed as a Chinese education model. Moreover, conceptualizations of Chinese education risk implying homogeneity in what can be more accurately understood as the overlapping of heterogeneous notions and practices in different educational contexts. By synthesizing evidence presented in this book and the research that has preceded it, this chapter aims to delineate the main aspects of what has been referred to as a Chinese education model. The chapter first argues that the Chinese education model is characterized by three attributes: dynamism, hybridity, and heterogeneity. It then makes the case that the Chinese education model can be more clearly understood by conceptually disaggregating it into its three key elements: norms, institutions, and individuals.

Jonathan Spangler, “Chinese Education Models in a Global Age: Myth or Reality?,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Chinese Education Models in a Global Age, Singapore: Springer, 2016, pp. 337–354, <doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0330-1_24>.

The Evolution of Leadership Styles in the South China Sea: Contextual Factors and Shifting Approaches in China and the United States

International relations and security studies suffer from an inadequate understanding of established theories in organizational leadership and management studies. This chapter contributes to these disciplines by drawing upon such models to analyze the changes in political leadership approaches of China and the United States in their interactions over maritime territorial disputes in the South China Sea (SCS). Using the transactional–transformational and directive–participative leadership paradigms as its foundation, the analysis argues (1) that contextual factors unique to the each country shape its political leadership styles and (2) the leadership styles within each case study have changed dramatically over the past decades in terms of their rhetoric and policies for managing the SCS disputes. Empirical evidence is based on the policies, leaders’ statements, and official documents of China, a claimant to SCS maritime territory, and the United States, an influential stakeholder in the disputes. In the two case studies, the chapter discusses the implications of the changing leadership styles for the understanding of political interaction in the region and the future of the SCS disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, “The Evolution of Leadership Styles in the South China Sea: Contextual Factors and Shifting Approaches in China and the United States,” in Evan Berman and M. Shamsul Haque, Asian Leadership in Policy and Governance, Bingley: Emerald Group, 2015, pp. 159–185, <doi:10.1108/S2053-769720150000024007>.

Taiwanese Media, Partisan Bias, and News Coverage of the DPP and KMT

Consumers of news media in Taiwan regularly reflect on the partisan bias of individual news sources. Media outlets are generally classified as favoring either the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) or Kuomintang (KMT), and casual observation of the periodicals’ histories, ownership, and content can understandably suggest an underlying partisan influence. Despite the general consensus among the public that media bias exists, no academic studies to date have sought to investigate the issue using empirical evidence derived from the news coverage of the media in question. This study uses datasets extracted from the Global Database of Events, Language, and Tone (GDELT) to analyze the tone of selected news sources’ coverage about the DPP and KMT from March 2015 to August 2018. The results reveal that Taiwanese news sources differ in their coverage of the two political parties, that some perceived left-leaning media outlets portray the DPP more positively, and that some perceived right-leaning media outlets portray the KMT more positively. The findings also quantify and compare the extent of each publication’s partisan bias, suggesting that some may favor a certain party or coalition more than others news sources in the same camp. Because time-series data is used in the analyses, changes in the tone of news coverage during the time period of consideration are also briefly explored. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of partisan media in Taiwan and internationally and suggests that raising awareness of potential biases can serve to lessen their negative impacts on the public.

Jonathan Spangler, “Taiwanese Media, Partisan Bias, and News Coverage of the DPP and KMT,” presented at the IDAS Conference on ‘Transformation and Challenges in the Asia-Pacific: The Next Decade and Beyond’, Taipei: National Chengchi University, November 23–24, 2018.

Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects in the Post-Arbitration South China Sea

Taiwan has taken a multifaceted approach to the Philippines v. China arbitration case and the South China Sea more broadly that has attempted to highlight its commitment to abiding by international law and promoting regional cooperation by shelving sovereignty disputes. The extent to which the Tribunal’s conclusions in its Award were detrimental to Taiwanese interests and addressed issues beyond the Philippines’ fifteen submissions took many policymakers, analysts, and legal experts by surprise. For Taiwan, the Award threatens to have profound diplomatic implications for its (1) capacity to participate in dispute management negotiations, (2) leverage in pushing for regional cooperation, (3) relations with mainland China, and (4) relations with countries and other actors that have sided with the Tribunal despite the controversy regarding some of its conclusions. In the post-arbitration context, Taiwan’s diplomatic policy options have become more limited, less feasible in terms of near- term implementation, and will require greater domestic and international commitment to accomplish in the long term. Nevertheless, the ROC government still has various policy options available to it. This chapter considers three of its diplomatic policy options for which it must make important choices in the post-arbitration context, including (1) whether it should maintain a hardline or flexible position on issues of territorial sovereignty, entitlements, and the inclusivity of international legal and diplomatic mechanisms; (2) whether or not – and if so, how – it should continue its vociferous advocacy of the “shelve disputes, promote cooperation” framework; and (3) whether or not it should clarify its eleven-dash line territorial claims to be in accordance with the Tribunal’s interpretations of international law.

Jonathan Spangler, “Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects in the Post-Arbitration South China Sea,” presented at the National Defense University/National Chengchi University Joint Conference, Taipei: National Defense University/National Chengchi University, December 16, 2016.

Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models, Teachers, and Students: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan

Recent years have seen an explosion in the popularity of online education, yet the impacts of online education on existing education models, teachers, and students are not fully understood. While the rise of online education is evident in countries around the world, students in East Asian societies have been particularly active in their online educational pursuits. This chapter seeks to further understand the significance of these trends by using empirical evidence from a nationwide survey conducted in collaboration with the Election Study Center in Taiwan. In particular, it aims to identify the impacts of online education on the existing education model, teachers, and students. The results indicated that online education has had major impacts on the existing education model. It was seen as more Western, active, top-down, and focused on knowledge acquisition than offline education, which suggests that offline education represents a significant departure from the approaches to teaching and learning that locals have come to expect. The perceived impacts on teachers included an encouragement of teaching quality improvement and lessened the overall burden. As for students, the perceived impacts have been mostly positive, with respondents viewing online education as encouraging independent learning, providing more opportunities to be critical of teachers, and not necessarily discouraging creativity or asking questions. Respondents also suggested that online education supplemented the breadth, depth, and richness of educational opportunities, suggesting that some respondents viewed local educational opportunities as inadequate. Detrimental impacts on students included decreased opportunities for face-to-face interaction with peers and teachers as well as mentions of assessment problems and student apathy.

Jonathan Spangler, “Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models, Teachers, and Students: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan,” presented at the Higher Education Research Association (HERA) Conference, Seoul: Higher Education Research Association, October 15–17, 2014.

Overcoming Inaction: Critical Pedagogy as Postmodern Feminist Action

Feminisms of classical lineage have affected changes of profound global impact. For well over a century, liberal, Marxist, socialist, and radical feminisms, among others, have had such a pervasive influence on laws and social norms around the world that what was once perceived as out-of-the-question is now accepted and even embraced within mainstream social paradigms. Despite their historical successes, these feminisms have been taken to task by postmodern feminist critiques for their inattention to the diverse realities of women around the world. Through a postmodern lens, these action-oriented feminisms have, for the most part, been shaped by and for higher-income women of Western countries and failed to take into account the distinct experiences of many around the world. Conversely, postmodern feminist theory, given its theoretical nature, has been criticized for failing to offer courses of action applicable to the greater feminist movement. While theoretically significant, postmodern feminism’s inaction has been seen as an obstacle to the advancement of the feminist cause. Such criticisms on both sides of the divide are valid and contribute to the further development of feminist theory. They do not, however, provide possibilities for incorporating elements of action into postmodern feminist discourse. This article argues that techniques in critical pedagogy offer one such possibility. Applying critical educational methodologies for incorporating feminist discourse into classrooms of various subjects, it proposes three tools for implementation: guided critical reflection, re-envisioning education as conscientization, and dialogic learning.

Jonathan Spangler, “Overcoming Inaction: Critical Pedagogy as Postmodern Feminist Action,” presented at the International Conference on Language and Communication (ICLC), Bangkok: National Institute of Development Administration, December 12–13, 2013.

South China Sea Tensions: State Involvement and Prediction Using GDELT Event Data

Jonathan Spangler, South China Sea Tensions: State Involvement and Prediction Using GDELT Event Data, Taipei: National Chengchi University, February 2018.

Intentions and Expectations versus Reality in Participatory Development: Case Studies from Peace Corps Ecuador

Jonathan Spangler, Intentions and Expectations versus Reality in Participatory Development: Case Studies from Peace Corps Ecuador, Ningbo: University of Nottingham Ningbo, China, November 21, 2009.