Publications

Books

Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies

This book stimulates discussions on cultural and educational exchanges between rival states and societies, raises awareness of the potential positive and negative impacts of such exchanges, and serves as a basis for future research and program design. Cultural and educational exchanges in various forms have existed for millennia. Yet it was not until the unprecedented human devastation of two world wars catalyzed a sense of urgency around the world that a new era of cultural and educational exchange programs emerged as a means of easing tensions between rival states and societies. This book is motivated by the need for critical research that can contribute to building a more comprehensive understanding of the issues at stake. It begins with a historical overview of cultural and educational exchanges between rival societies, an assessment of their positive and negative impacts, and a review of some of the most prominent theories in relevant fields. It then presents a diverse set of case studies, in which authors consider not only the real or expected benefits of such exchanges but also the potentially negative impacts, challenges faced along the way, and broader effects on the rival societies at large. The states and societies considered include North Korea and the West, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel and the Palestinian territories, India and Pakistan, China and Taiwan, Cuba and the US, and China and the US. Taken together, the chapters demonstrate that exchanges have observable impacts on the individuals and institutions involved. Moreover, they reveal that exchanges have the capacity, in some cases, to affect broader social and political change at the family, community, society, or state level, but these impacts are indirect and typically require long-term concerted efforts by those involved.

Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3>.

South China Sea Event Timeline: 1900–1969

The South China Sea Event Timeline aims to become the world’s most accurate and comprehensive chronological reference about the history of the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes. From major incidents at sea to meetings and statements of world leaders, events of all types are included in the event timeline, the complete volumes of which span over a century of history in the region. Today, the event timeline is one of the few indispensable sources of information to date for policymakers, researchers, students, the media, and others interested in the disputes.

The South China Sea Think Tank (SCSTT) is an affiliated program of the Asia-Pacific Policy Research Association (APPRA), an independent, non-profit organization promoting dialogue, research, and education about policies in the Asia-Pacific region.

By purchasing the printed or digital versions of the South China Sea Event Timeline, you are supporting the aims of these institutions as they endeavor to facilitate constructive dialogue and exchange, produce high-quality research, and promote education in the Asia-Pacific region and around the world.

Jonathan Spangler and Olga Cachia (eds.), South China Sea Event Timeline: 1900–1969, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Asia-Pacific Policy Research Association, August 2018.

Enterprises, Localities, People, and Policy in the South China Sea: Beneath the Surface

This volume takes readers beneath the surface of the South China Sea by exploring critical but under-researched issues related to the maritime territorial disputes. It draws attention to the importance of private sector, civil society, and subnational actors’ roles in the disputes and sheds light on key policy issues that are addressed less often in the literature. By going beyond mainstream analyses focused solely on issues of traditional security, resource economics, and international law, it offers a fresh and engaging look at the South China Sea disputes. The book is divided into five parts – historical foundations, enterprises, localities, people, and policy – and its chapters investigate historiography in the region, the global defense industry’s role as beneficiary of the disputes, tourism as a territorial strategy, the roles of provinces and local governments, disaster management, confidence-building measures, environmental and science diplomacy, and other topics seldom discussed in other analyses of the South China Sea disputes. The book’s diverse content and fresh perspectives make it an essential read not only for policymakers and those in the international relations community but also for all others interested in gaining a more well-rounded understanding of the many issues at stake in the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, Dean Karalekas, and Moises Lopes de Souza (eds.), Enterprises, Localities, People, and Policy in the South China Sea: Beneath the Surface, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, <doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62828-8>.

Chinese Education Models in a Global Age

China’s rise, an increasing emphasis on international education benchmarking, and a global recognition of East Asian countries’ success in this regard have brought the issue of Chinese education to the forefront of public consciousness. In particular, the concept of a “Chinese education model” is one that has sparked debate and quickly become a major focus of education research around the world, especially in light of regional achievements vis-à-vis university rankings, bibliometric indices, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and other such benchmarks. Chinese Education Models in a Global Age tackles this controversial issue head on by synthesizing a diversity of analyses from a world-class team of twenty-seven authors. It reveals that Chinese education models, which are present in many different geographic and institutional contexts, have an important influence on social and institutional norms as well as individual belief systems and behaviors in China and beyond. The first of its kind, this edited volume establishes a foundation for future research while providing a nuanced and tightly integrated compilation of differing perspectives on the role and impact of Chinese education models worldwide. It is essential reading for all scholars, policymakers, students, parents, and educators interested in the rising demographic and economic influence of people of Chinese descent on education around the world.

Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Chinese Education Models in a Global Age, Singapore: Springer, 2016, <doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0330-1>.

Reports

South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects

On July 12, 2016, the Tribunal in the South China Sea arbitration case issued its Award, officially bringing closure to the arbitral proceedings initiated by the Philippines against China in early 2013. In the Award, the Tribunal’s conclusions overwhelmingly supported the Philippines’ positions regarding almost all of the fifteen submissions in its Memorial. The Tribunal also rejected or opted not to take into account the vast majority of China’s positions as elaborated through official statements and was similarly not persuaded by arguments issued or evidence presented by Taiwan.

The Award, especially due to relevant countries’ policy responses and the enduring controversy over its content, has significant implications for the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes, which remain one of the most potent and complex issues affecting stability and security in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. In the post-arbitration context, rival claimants and major stakeholders have been forced to recalibrate their rhetoric, strategies, and policies in order to safeguard their interests and rights in the maritime area while maintaining an image internationally that is conducive to achieving these aims.

This report, entitled South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, builds upon the success of the first South China Sea Lawfare report that was published in early 2016. By bringing together an international team of experts writing on the different approaches of each claimant and stakeholder, it aims to serve as a more inclusive reference on post-arbitration South China Sea policy issues than the many other analyses published in the aftermath of the Award.

In Part I: Introduction, the report begins by giving a brief overview of the arbitral proceedings in historical perspective and summarizing the legal positions of the parties involved and the Tribunal’s conclusions as described in its two awards. In Part II: Rival Claimants and Part III: Major Stakeholders, the chapters focus on (1) the specific policy approaches of each country or actor; (2) the implications of the Award for each; (3) the legal, diplomatic, and security policy options available to them; and (4) their future prospects in the post-arbitration context of the South China Sea. In Part IV: Conclusion, the report explores the implications of the Award for international maritime law and the future of maritime territorial disputes. By encouraging and compiling a diversity of views on the South China Sea, the editors hope that this report will serve over the coming years as a resource for policymakers, a foundation for future research, and an example of constructive international collaboration in the midst of the disputes.

Fu-Kuo Liu, Keyuan Zou, Shicun Wu, and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, April 20, 2017.

South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case

As tensions in the South China Sea have risen, the Philippines v. China arbitration case and the Philippines’ decision, after many years of unsuccessful bilateral negotiations, to engage in lawfare have become a focal point of the maritime territorial disputes, leading many state and non-state actors to become increasingly involved in and vocal about South China Sea issues. The controversial nature of the issue has resulted in a proliferation of heated diplomatic and military interactions and, in many instances, hindered meaningful cooperation between relevant stakeholders. This report, as the result of a collaborative effort between authors from ten countries, aims to serve as an example of constructive international cooperation on South China Sea issues in the midst of heightened regional tensions.

Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, January 29, 2016.

Chapters

The History and Impacts of Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies

Cultural and educational exchanges are widely recognized today for the benefits they bring to the individuals and institutions involved. Advances in transportation, communications, and information technologies have transformed what was once an activity accessible only to a select few into one that is feasible for an increasing percentage of the world’s population. Although most exchanges take place between states and societies that are diplomatically and politically friendly to one another, cultural and educational exchanges between rival states and societies have become increasingly common and visible, particularly over the past 70 years. In their myriad forms, such exchanges have the potential not only to affect the individuals and institutions involved but also their communities and societies at large. To serve as a foundation for the chapters that follow, this chapter first outlines the emergence of cultural and educational exchange programs in the twentieth century, which are often inspired by ideas of ancient origin, catalyzed by the academic formalization of their ideals, adapted to modern institutional frameworks, and influenced by emerging issues that will continue to reshape the world in the coming years. It then highlights the two faces of cultural and educational exchanges, first covering the positive effects, which include their potential to reveal common humanity, reduce mistrust, challenge stereotypes, and inspire critical reflexivity. It then discusses the negative effects of exchanges between rival societies, which include their possibility to advance ulterior political motives, reinforce prejudices, miscalculate needs and impacts, encourage human capital imbalances, and threaten the availability of local employment opportunities. The chapter then concludes with a discussion of the aims of the book and a look ahead at the significant role of cultural and educational exchanges in the years to come.

Jonathan Spangler, “The History and Impacts of Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, 1–21, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_1>.

Meteorological Educational Exchanges Between Rival States: Cuba–US and China–Taiwan–US Cooperation

Meteorology has long played an important role as the subject of educational exchanges not only between countries with friendly relations but also between those whose relations are characterized by tensions or conflict. Meteorological educational exchanges have taken place between national weather services, higher education institutions, and other research organizations throughout the world and have managed to endure where other exchanges would otherwise be difficult or impossible to maintain. This chapter first explores the reasons for meteorology’s capacity to serve as a medium for institutional and people-to-people exchanges, even between rival states or societies. It then focuses on the two major case studies of Cuba–US and China–Taiwan–US meteorological educational exchanges. Each case study highlights the historical context of the exchanges, the reasons that they could take place amid diplomatic and political tensions, the challenges in implementation, and their impacts on people-to-people and institutional relations. These are complemented by firsthand, empirical evidence from personal communications with the institutional leaders, scientists, and educators directly involved in these exchanges. The chapter then concludes with a discussion of the extent to which international cooperation on meteorological education and training between rival states can continue to serve a constructive role in the future.

Jonathan Spangler and Timothy Spangler, “Meteorological Educational Exchanges Between Rival States: Cuba–US and China–Taiwan–US Cooperation,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, 129–143, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_8>.

Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies: Challenges in Implementation and Strategies for Success

As the preceding chapters in this volume show, cultural and educational exchanges between rival states and societies are diverse in nature and can have significant positive and negative impacts on those involved and their societies more broadly. This concluding chapter first outlines some of the key challenges involved in implementing exchange programs, which are inherently case-specific and can have major impacts on the feasibility and outcomes of those programs. Taking these into consideration, the chapter then provides overviews of some strategies for success in implementing cultural and educational exchanges that are feasible and sustainable and have lasting positive impacts on those involved.

Phillip Lee Henderson and Jonathan Spangler, “Cultural and Educational Exchanges Between Rival Societies: Challenges in Implementation and Strategies for Success,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies, Singapore: Springer, 2018, 145–164, <doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_9>.

Undisputed Winners: The Benefits and Beneficiaries of the South China Sea Maritime Territorial Disputes

This chapter argues that, while states continue to vie for control of maritime territory and resources in the South China Sea, it is already clear who the real winners are. The global defense industry, comprising elements of government, private, and state-run enterprises, academia, and civil society, has benefited greatly from the developments and interactions in the region and, regardless of the outcome of the disputes, will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. This analysis begins by outlining the roles of the constituents of the global defense industry as beneficiaries of the disputes. It then takes a closer look at the different forms in which the benefits are manifested. It is structured upon the premise that these benefits are both material and immaterial in nature, the former including immediate financial gains, future investment guarantees, and sub-industry creation and expansion, and the latter including securitization strategy prioritization and reduced relative risk.

Jonathan Spangler, “Undisputed Winners: The Benefits and Beneficiaries of the South China Sea Maritime Territorial Disputes,” in Jonathan Spangler, Dean Karalekas, and Moises Lopes de Souza (eds.), Enterprises, Localities, People, and Policy in the South China Sea: Beneath the Surface, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, <doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62828-8_2>.

South China Sea Policy Options in the Post-Arbitration Context

The arbitration case and the Tribunal’s conclusions as outlined in the Award have major legal, diplomatic, and security implications for rival claimants and major stakeholders in the South China Sea. As a result, states and other actors must consider their relevant policy options and proceed accordingly. This chapter begins by providing a condensed historical overview of the arbitral proceedings, which are summarized by dividing the timeline into the pre-arbitration context, the Philippines’ initiation and China’s response, the Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility of October 2015, and the Award of July 2016 on the merits and remaining issues in the arbitration case. It then considers the implications of the Award and the related common policy options available to multiple claimants and stakeholders. Legally, these implications and policy options relate to the status of features, sovereignty issues, maritime rights and entitlements, and obligations in maritime spaces. Diplomatically, they involve recalibrating diplomatic relations and preferences regarding the means of dispute settlement. In terms of security, they include legal justification for military operations, emboldened securitization efforts, and opportunities for confidence-building and cooperation. In considering these issues, the chapter aims not to provide an exhaustive account of all relevant implications and policy options but to serve as a foundation for the chapters that follow as well as future research and policy discussions on the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, “South China Sea Policy Options in the Post-Arbitration Context,” in Fu-Kuo Liu, Keyuan Zou, Shicun Wu, and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, April 20, 2017, pp. 7–19.

Post-Arbitration South China Sea: Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects

Taiwan has taken a multifaceted approach to the Philippines v. China arbitration case and the South China Sea more broadly that has attempted to highlight its commitment to abiding by international law and promoting regional cooperation by shelving sovereignty disputes. The extent to which the Tribunal’s conclusions in its Award were detrimental to Taiwanese interests and addressed issues beyond the Philippines’ fifteen submissions took many policymakers, analysts, and legal experts by surprise. For Taiwan, the Award threatens to have profound diplomatic implications for its (1) capacity to participate in dispute management negotiations, (2) leverage in pushing for regional cooperation, (3) relations with mainland China, and (4) relations with countries and other actors that have sided with the Tribunal despite the controversy regarding some of its conclusions. In the post-arbitration context, Taiwan’s diplomatic policy options have become more limited, less feasible in terms of near- term implementation, and will require greater domestic and international commitment to accomplish in the long term. Nevertheless, the ROC government still has various policy options available to it. This chapter considers three of its diplomatic policy options for which it must make important choices in the post-arbitration context, including (1) whether it should maintain a hardline or flexible position on issues of territorial sovereignty, entitlements, and the inclusivity of international legal and diplomatic mechanisms; (2) whether or not – and if so, how – it should continue its vociferous advocacy of the “shelve disputes, promote cooperation” framework; and (3) whether or not it should clarify its eleven-dash line territorial claims to be in accordance with the Tribunal’s interpretations of international law.

Jonathan Spangler, “Post-Arbitration South China Sea: Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects,” in Fu-Kuo Liu, Keyuan Zou, Shicun Wu, and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Post-Arbitration Policy Options and Future Prospects, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank/Taiwan Center for Security Studies, April 20, 2017, pp. 125–141.

Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Background, Legal Perspectives, and International Responses

This chapter first provides an overview of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereafter, “UNCLOS” or “the Convention”), the role of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague, and a background and timeline of The Republic of the Philippines v. The People’s Republic of China (hereafter, “Philippines v. China”) arbitration case. It then gives a condensed overview of the legal perspectives discussed in Part II and the international diplomatic and security responses discussed in Part III of the report.

Jonathan Spangler and Olga Daksueva, “Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Background, Legal Perspectives, and International Responses,” in Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, January 29, 2016, pp. 17–37.

Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Taiwan’s Diplomatic and Security Responses

The extent and significance of Taiwan’s territorial claims, its unique political relationship with mainland China, and its position as a key aspect of the U.S. government’s strategy in the Asia-Pacific region make Taiwan an important player both in the arbitration case and in the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes more broadly. Throughout the Philippines v. China arbitral proceedings, the government of the Republic of China (ROC) has responded diplomatically by reiterating its sovereignty claims, raising awareness about its legal and historical perspectives, reaffirming its commitment to abiding by international law and guaranteeing freedom of navigation and overflight, and positioning itself as a peacemaker in the South China Sea disputes. The ROC’s security responses have included a continuation of its defensive security posture and an emphasis on island development for civilian and humanitarian purposes while continuing to consider a possible transition of forces on one of its occupied features. Meanwhile, the upcoming change in political administration on the island has raised some questions as to whether or not there will be a resulting shift in approach towards the South China Sea. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Philippines v. China Arbitration Case: Taiwan’s Diplomatic and Security Responses,” in Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, January 29, 2016, pp. 127–137.

Lessons for the South China Sea: Areas of Compatibility, Incompatibility, and Ambiguity

Since 2013, the Philippines v. China arbitration case has been a key focal point of the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes, and the turbulence created by the arbitral proceedings has sent ripples far beyond the waters of the region. The case itself has significant implications for countries’ sovereignty claims, the delimitation of maritime boundaries, and the activities that take place in maritime spaces. Perhaps even more significant, however, are the responses that the case has generated as state and non-state actors around the world have become increasingly involved in and vocal about the issue. These responses, including the new dialogues they open, the diplomatic relations they strengthen and weaken, and the positive and negative feelings attached to them, have significant implications for the political relations between claimants and non-claimant stakeholders involved in the disputes and the future of regional stability. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Lessons for the South China Sea: Areas of Compatibility, Incompatibility, and Ambiguity,” in Fu-Kuo Liu and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), South China Sea Lawfare: Legal Perspectives and International Responses to the Philippines v. China Arbitration Case, January 29, 2016, pp. 159–167.

Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan

Recent years have seen an explosion in the popularity of online education, yet the impacts of online education on existing education models, teachers, and students are not fully understood. While the rise of online education is evident in countries around the world, students in East Asian societies have been particularly active in their online educational pursuits. This chapter seeks to further understand the significance of these trends by using empirical evidence from a nationwide survey conducted in collaboration with the Election Study Center in Taiwan. In particular, it aims to identify the impacts of online education on the existing education model, teachers, and students. The results indicated that online education has had major impacts on the existing education model. It was seen as more Western, active, top-down, and focused on knowledge acquisition than offline education, which suggests that offline education represents a significant departure from the approaches to teaching and learning that locals have come to expect. The perceived impacts on teachers included an encouragement of teaching quality improvement and lessened the overall burden. As for students, the perceived impacts have been mostly positive, with respondents viewing online education as encouraging independent learning, providing more opportunities to be critical of teachers, and not necessarily discouraging creativity or asking questions. Respondents also suggested that online education supplemented the breadth, depth, and richness of educational opportunities, suggesting that some respondents viewed local educational opportunities as inadequate. Detrimental impacts on students included decreased opportunities for face-to-face interaction with peers and teachers as well as mentions of assessment problems and student apathy.

Jonathan Spangler, “Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Chinese Education Models in a Global Age, Singapore: Springer, 2016, pp. 177–192, <doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0330-1_13>.

Chinese Education Models in a Global Age: Myth or Reality?

The extent to which a distinct Chinese education model can be identified is the subject of much debate. Among the many studies that approach the question, there is a tendency to be selective in elaborating the constituent elements of what could be viewed as a Chinese education model. Moreover, conceptualizations of Chinese education risk implying homogeneity in what can be more accurately understood as the overlapping of heterogeneous notions and practices in different educational contexts. By synthesizing evidence presented in this book and the research that has preceded it, this chapter aims to delineate the main aspects of what has been referred to as a Chinese education model. The chapter first argues that the Chinese education model is characterized by three attributes: dynamism, hybridity, and heterogeneity. It then makes the case that the Chinese education model can be more clearly understood by conceptually disaggregating it into its three key elements: norms, institutions, and individuals.

Jonathan Spangler, “Chinese Education Models in a Global Age: Myth or Reality?,” in Chuing Prudence Chou and Jonathan Spangler (eds.), Chinese Education Models in a Global Age, Singapore: Springer, 2016, pp. 337–354, <doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0330-1_24>.

The Evolution of Leadership Styles in the South China Sea: Contextual Factors and Shifting Approaches in China and the United States

International relations and security studies suffer from an inadequate understanding of established theories in organizational leadership and management studies. This chapter contributes to these disciplines by drawing upon such models to analyze the changes in political leadership approaches of China and the United States in their interactions over maritime territorial disputes in the South China Sea (SCS). Using the transactional–transformational and directive–participative leadership paradigms as its foundation, the analysis argues (1) that contextual factors unique to the each country shape its political leadership styles and (2) the leadership styles within each case study have changed dramatically over the past decades in terms of their rhetoric and policies for managing the SCS disputes. Empirical evidence is based on the policies, leaders’ statements, and official documents of China, a claimant to SCS maritime territory, and the United States, an influential stakeholder in the disputes. In the two case studies, the chapter discusses the implications of the changing leadership styles for the understanding of political interaction in the region and the future of the SCS disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, “The Evolution of Leadership Styles in the South China Sea: Contextual Factors and Shifting Approaches in China and the United States,” in Evan Berman and M. Shamsul Haque, Asian Leadership in Policy and Governance, Bingley: Emerald Group, 2015, pp. 159–185, <doi:10.1108/S2053-769720150000024007>.

Journal Articles

China’s Diplomatic, Security, and Legal Perspectives on the South China Sea Disputes

Despite China’s high-profile role in the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes, Beijing’s perspectives are often misunderstood within the international community. With the aim of bringing clarity to the issue, this article discusses China’s viewpoint on the disputes from diplomatic, security, and legal angles. From a diplomatic perspective, Beijing acknowledges that disputes exist in the South China Sea, favors bilateral negotiations for dispute settlement, is steadfast in its promotion of non-interference in regional relations, has no choice but to always take the Taiwan factor into consideration, and is forced more often than it wishes to engage in tit-for-tat, reactionary diplomatic behavior. From a security perspective, China holds that it has exercised remarkable restraint in the face of security threats and has argued, albeit unconvincingly, that its development efforts on disputed features are primarily for civilian purposes. From a legal perspective, the article assesses the PRC’s position with regards to international maritime law following the 1982 signing of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and in the context of the ongoing international arbitration case unilaterally initiated by the Philippines in 2013 under Annex VII of the Convention, in which China has declined to participate. It then concludes with a discussion of the implications of the article and suggests that there is a need for a more comprehensive understanding of Beijing’s diplomatic, security, and legal perspectives within the international community if there is ever to be a resolution to the South China Sea disputes that does not seriously damage the interests of one stakeholder or another.

Cheng-yi Lin and Jonathan Spangler, “China’s Diplomatic, Security, and Legal Perspectives on the South China Sea Disputes,” Prospect Journal 15, April 2016, pp. 57–84.

Public Constructs of Energy Values and Behaviors in Implementing Taiwan’s ‘Energy-Conservation/Carbon-Reduction’ Declarations

The emergent crisis of global warming calls for energy education for people of all ages and social groups. The Taiwanese government has publicized 10 declarations on energy conservation and carbon reduction as public behavior guidelines to mitigate global warming. This study uses interviews with quantitative assessment to explore the values and behaviors of 91 Taiwanese people in implementing the declarations. The results of factor analysis reveal that the 10 declarations include 3 value constructs (nature, domestic technology, and transportation technology) and 3 behavior constructs (ease, driving consideration, and vehicle consideration). Correlation and regression analyses show that nature and domestic technology values can predict easy behavior (EB) but cannot predict either consideration behavior. Females have more positive energy values, but not energy behaviors, than males. Age is positively related to EB, and income does not play a significant role in determining either values or behaviors. These results have implications for policy-makers and educators, suggesting that strategies for promoting energy values and behaviors could be made more effective by focusing on relevant gender and age differences.

Mei-Shiu Chiu, Huei-Ming Yeh, and Jonathan Spangler, “Public Constructs of Energy Values and Behaviors in Implementing Taiwan’s ‘Energy-Conservation/Carbon-Reduction’ Declarations,” International Journal of Science Education 6(1), 2016, pp. 46–67, <doi:10.1080/21548455.2014.969357>.

Book Reviews

Resource Management and Contested Territories in East Asia, by Ralf Emmers

Recent years have seen maritime territorial disputes in East Asia emerge as a major nexus of multidisciplinary scholarly interest. State interaction over these geographic gray areas has risen in intensity due to the growing recognition of the economic significance of maritime resources. Meanwhile, the ambiguity of international law, shifting power structures, and regional memory politics all serve to further complicate the disputes and fan the flames of rivalry. In Resource Management and Contested Territories in East Asia, Ralf Emmers takes yet another look at the issue, this time focusing on resource management and the potential for political resolution through joint development agreements (JDAs). ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Resource Management and Contested Territories in East Asia, by Ralf Emmers,” Journal of East Asian Studies 15(1), April 2015, pp. 153–155, <doi:10.1017/S1598240800004203>.

The SSCI Syndrome in Higher Education: A Local or Global Phenomenon, by Chuing Prudence Chou

In recent decades, the forces of globalization and neoliberal economic ideology have permeated every aspect of society, and higher education is by no means immune to these trends. The resulting competition for world university rankings has been a catalyst for far-reaching educational policy reforms affecting academia throughout the world.

Chuing Prudence Chou’s The SSCI Syndrome in Higher Education: A Local or Global Phenomenon focuses on how governments and universities have begun implementing new systems for performance evaluation based solely on English language- and Western-centric quantitative indicators of research publication output. In particular, it examines the justifications for these policies, their impacts, the challenges confronted by relevant actors, and the emergence of pockets of resistance to the “SSCI syndrome” of the title. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “The SSCI Syndrome in Higher Education: A Local or Global Phenomenon, by Chuing Prudence Chou,” Review of Higher Education 38(2), 2014, pp. 326–329, <doi:10.1353/rhe.2015.0011>.

Taiwan Education at the Crossroad: When Globalization Meets Localization, by Chuing Prudence Chou and Gregory Ching

With an account dating back to the pre-1626 influences of the Chinese imperial examination system, Taiwan Education at the Crossroad endeavours to document the historical development of Taiwan’s educational system and, in more recent years, how the forces of globalisation and localisation have shaped this. As the interconnectedness between societies increases, educational reform has become a key concern of policy-makers across the globe. Development successes in East Asia have caught the attention of researchers everywhere, and it is no secret that educational systems in the region have played a crucial role in this process. Indeed, no demographic or geographic group is left untouched by their pervasive influence. Taiwan’s educational system and its regional context offer an invaluable subject for a detailed case study of these trends, particularly at a time when countries the world over are struggling to ensure that their policies keep pace with the changing nature of education. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Taiwan Education at the Crossroad: When Globalization Meets Localization, by Chuing Prudence Chou and Gregory Ching,” History of Education 43(5), 2014, pp. 716–718, <doi:10.1080/0046760X.2014.913698>.

Analysis and Commentary

Sea of Troubles: Stakeholders Eye Code of Conduct for South China Sea

After nearly fifteen years of slow-moving diplomatic negotiations following the signing of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea in 2002, ASEAN and China managed to push through a framework for a more substantial Code of Conduct for the South China Sea (COC) in early August 2017. Although the framework is still far from what many proponents have aspired to all these years, its endorsement by senior policymakers nevertheless has several important implications for US policy in the region. ...

Lipin Tien, Jonathan Spangler, and Dean Karalekas, “Sea of Troubles: Stakeholders Eye Code of Conduct for South China Sea,” Strategic Vision 6(34): 25–30, August 2017.

‘Three Unforeseens’: Alarmist (Mis)understandings of Cross-Strait Relations

Since early 2016, a series of articles on ‘three unforeseens’ (三個想不到, sange xiangbudao), or previously unanticipated issues affecting the future of cross-strait relations, has been published and widely disseminated online. These three unforeseens relate to Taipei’s resolve regarding Taiwanese independence, Beijing’s determination regarding unification, and Washington’s underestimation of the explosiveness of cross-strait relations. Media outlets on both sides of the Taiwan Strait, entirely unable to resist the articles’ sensationalist interpretation of today’s relations between China, Taiwan, and the United States, have republished and reported on them, expanding their reach and adding fuel to the flames. The author, Li Yi, a Researcher with the Chongyang Institute for Financial Studies at Renmin University of China, seems to be gloating in and attempting to prolong his sudden infamy by publishing follow-up articles with the aim of resurfacing the catchphrase and bringing it into mainstream use. ...

Jonathan Spangler and Guang-Chang Bian, “‘Three Unforeseens’: Alarmist (Mis)understandings of Cross-Strait Relations,” Strategic Vision 5(30): 24–30, December 2016.

Three Ambiguities Driving Taiwan’s Defense Policy

Taiwan has long played a pivotal role in regional relations, and much of its strength today is derived from its thriving economy, vibrant democracy, and strong diplomatic relations with other countries. At the same time, its de facto statehood without UN member state status remains a seemingly unsurmountable obstacle, and it must also continuously confront the daunting reality that its most important economic partner is also its most serious security threat. Taiwan’s defense policy has been analyzed using many different lenses and encouraged by various defense concepts over the years, including the “resolute defense, effective deterrence” strategy before 1992 and again after 2008, the more proactive “effective deterrence, resolute defense” approach in the interim, the “porcupine” strategy suggested by William Murray, the “deter, defend, repel, and partner” strategy encouraged by Dan Blumenthal et al., discussions about theater missile defense (TMD) systems, suggestions about cross-strait military confidence-building measures during the Ma administration, and the “four elements” (i.e., military technology, economic power, national identity, and China–Taiwan–US triangular relations) assessed by Lowell Dittmer. These diverse conceptualizations are analytically useful for assessing the current state and future trajectory and options for Taiwan’s defense policy, but there is always more to the picture than meets the eye. In Taiwan’s case, there are three key ambiguities that serve as drivers of its defense policy: Washington’s military commitment, Beijing’s unification resolve, and Taipei’s unrevealed intentions. This article outlines these three ambiguities, makes a preliminary assessment of their implications, and argues that they must be taken into consideration in any attempt to elucidate the past, present, and future of Taiwan’s defense policy. ...

Richard Juichou Hu and Jonathan Spangler, “Three Ambiguities Driving Taiwan’s Defense Policy,” Strategic Vision 5(29): 19–23, October 2016.

Benefiting from the Taiwan Factor in the South China Sea: How Rival Claimants Can Take Advantage of the ROC’s Policy Approach

For all the criticism the President Ma Ying-jeou administration received for its handling of cross-strait relations, the economy, and other issues, it played its cards remarkably well in the context of the South China Sea maritime territorial disputes. Its multifaceted approach included (1) a reassertion of its claims based on the map issued by the ROC government in 1947; (2) strategic ambiguity in terms of its entitlements within the map’s eleven-dash line; (3) commitment to abiding by the principles of international maritime law, including UNCLOS; (4) emphasis on its role as a peacemaker in the region and concrete policy actions to support its rhetoric and proposals; (5) rejection of the international arbitration case initiated by the Philippines, in which Taipei was unable to formally participate; and (6) an increasingly vociferous push to demonstrate and publicize that, from both scientific and legal perspectives, Itu Aba (Taiping) Island is indeed an island in response to Manila’s claims to the contrary and an arbitral tribunal’s conclusion on the matter. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Benefiting from the Taiwan Factor in the South China Sea: How Rival Claimants Can Take Advantage of the ROC’s Policy Approach,” Strategic Vision 5(28): 14–18, August 2016.

Taiping Island’s Hypothetical EEZ: Policy Options and Their Impacts on Taiwan’s Key Interests

Itu Aba (Taiping) Island was first occupied sixty years ago by the Republic of China (ROC, Taiwan). It is the largest feature in the Spratly Islands, has been continuously occupied for the longest period of time, and is the only one with a naturally occurring fresh water source. It also has a native population of flora and fauna, basic infrastructure, and agriculture for food production. However, in the international arbitral proceedings unilaterally initiated by the Philippines against the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 2013, the Philippines and its legal team have pushed for the Arbitral Tribunal to issue an award ruling that Itu Aba (Taiping) Island is not an island but a rock under Article 121 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Prevented from formally participating in the arbitration case, Taipei has used other means to demonstrate with all certainty that Itu Aba (Taiping) Island meets or exceeds the basic qualifications of an island under international law. Given the evidence, it is a distinct possibility that the Arbitral Tribunal will determine in its upcoming award that the feature constitutes an island and that it therefore may be entitled to a 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ). In the event of such a decision, the ROC will be presented with three broad policy options, including (1) maintaining ambiguity about the territorial claims derived from its 1947 map, (2) clarifying its territorial claims in a way that contradicts contemporary interpretations of international law, and (3) clarifying its territorial claims to be in accordance with international law, UNCLOS, and the Arbitral Tribunal’s award. This article assesses the positive and negative impacts that these three policy options could have on the ROC’s key interests, which are categorized as (1) national security, (2) territorial sovereignty claims, (3) its role as a responsible stakeholder and regional peacemaker, (4) domestic politics, (5) cross-strait relations, (6) relations with other claimants, (7) relations with the US, (8) regional stability, and (9) its diplomatic status in international fora. It then concludes that the first policy option is optimal in the short term until the award is announced and that, if Itu Aba (Taiping) Island is determined to qualify as an island under UNCLOS, the benefits of the third option will outweigh the costs. That said, ROC officials and relevant experts will have to take several key issues into account for the policy shift to produce the full range of potential benefits for Taiwan, rival claimants, and major stakeholders in the South China Sea.

Jonathan Spangler, “Taiping Island’s Hypothetical EEZ: Policy Options and Their Impacts on Taiwan’s Key Interests,” SSRN, April 20, 2016.

Interview with Raul (Pete) Pedrozo: U.S. South China Sea Policy, Freedom of Navigation Operations, and Accession to UNCLOS

The South China Sea Think Tank interviews Raul (Pete) Pedrozo about the U.S. responses to the Philippines v. China arbitration case, recent U.S. Navy freedom of navigation operations in the South China Sea, and the possibility of U.S. accession to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

Jonathan Spangler, “Interview with Raul (Pete) Pedrozo: U.S. South China Sea Policy, Freedom of Navigation Operations, and Accession to UNCLOS,” Perspectives 15(9), 2015, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Interview with James Borton: Vietnamese Environmental Nationalism and the Campaign to ‘Save the East Sea’

The South China Sea Think Tank interviews James Borton about his experiences in the Chàm Islands, the emerging environmental awareness there, and the campaign to inspire Vietnamese youth to become more involved in national environmental issues.

Jonathan Spangler, “Interview with James Borton: Vietnamese Environmental Nationalism and the Campaign to ‘Save the East Sea’,” Perspectives 16(8), 2016, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Commentary: President-Elect Tsai Ing-wen and the Future of Taiwan’s South China Sea Policy

President-Elect Tsai Ing-wen’s remarks during her international press conference on election night may shed some light on the future of Taiwan’s South China Sea policy and how it may differ from that of her predecessor.

Olga Daksueva and Jonathan Spangler, “Commentary: President-Elect Tsai Ing-wen and the Future of Taiwan’s South China Sea Policy,” Perspectives 16(7), 2016, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Expert Views: Implications of U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations in the South China Sea

Experts offer their reactions to the U.S. Navy’s high-profile freedom of navigation operations in the South China Sea.

Jonathan Spangler, “Expert Views: Implications of U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations in the South China Sea,” Perspectives 15(5), 2015, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Let’s Get Real about the South China Sea ‘Status Quo’

In discussions of the South China Sea disputes, the term “status quo” gets tossed around like a tugboat in a typhoon, but few leaders or analysts take a step back to consider what they are really talking about.

Jonathan Spangler, “Let’s Get Real about the South China Sea ‘Status Quo’,” Issue Briefings 15(9). Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Interview with James Borton: ‘Science Diplomacy’ as a Solution to the South China Sea Disputes?

The South China Sea Think Tank interviews James Borton about “science diplomacy,” prospects for international cooperation on environmental issues, and Taiwan’s role in the South China Sea.

Jonathan Spangler, “Interview with James Borton: ‘Science Diplomacy’ as a Solution to the South China Sea Disputes?,” Perspectives 15(1), 2015, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Claimant and Non-Claimant Views on SLOCs and Freedom of Navigation

Freedom of navigation concerns both South China Sea claimants and non-claimant stakeholders, yet the latter in particular have taken it up as their primary justification for involvement in the disputes.

Jonathan Spangler, “Claimant and Non-Claimant Views on SLOCs and Freedom of Navigation,” Issue Briefings 15(7), 2015, Taipei: South China Sea Think Tank.

Fear and Uncertainty: The Future of the Cross-Strait Services Trade Agreement

After months of simmering tensions between Taiwan’s ruling Kuomintang (KMT) and the opposition Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) backed by members of civil society, the debate over the Cross-Strait Services Trade Agreement (CSSTA) has finally reached a breaking point. During the past week, demonstrators – whom media outlets continue to misleadingly refer to only as “students” – successfully occupied the Legislative Yuan and Executive Yuan, managing to hold off police attempts to evict them from the former for almost a week. Yet amidst the commotion and calls to either renegotiate the agreement article by article or disband it in its entirety, three key issues have fallen by the wayside: the legality and implications of reneging on a bilateral agreement, the significance of international image and reputation for diplomatic relations, and most importantly, how to design feasible and effective ways to protect the most vulnerable members of Taiwanese society. ...

Jonathan Spangler, “Fear and Uncertainty: The Future of the Cross-Strait Services Trade Agreement,” The Diplomat, March 27, 2014.

Conference Papers

Taiwanese Media, Partisan Bias, and News Coverage of the DPP and KMT

Consumers of news media in Taiwan regularly reflect on the partisan bias of individual news sources. Media outlets are generally classified as favoring either the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) or Kuomintang (KMT), and casual observation of the periodicals’ histories, ownership, and content can understandably suggest an underlying partisan influence. Despite the general consensus among the public that media bias exists, no academic studies to date have sought to investigate the issue using empirical evidence derived from the news coverage of the media in question. This study uses datasets extracted from the Global Database of Events, Language, and Tone (GDELT) to analyze the tone of selected news sources’ coverage about the DPP and KMT from March 2015 to August 2018. The results reveal that Taiwanese news sources differ in their coverage of the two political parties, that some perceived left-leaning media outlets portray the DPP more positively, and that some perceived right-leaning media outlets portray the KMT more positively. The findings also quantify and compare the extent of each publication’s partisan bias, suggesting that some may favor a certain party or coalition more than others news sources in the same camp. Because time-series data is used in the analyses, changes in the tone of news coverage during the time period of consideration are also briefly explored. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of partisan media in Taiwan and internationally and suggests that raising awareness of potential biases can serve to lessen their negative impacts on the public.

Jonathan Spangler, “Taiwanese Media, Partisan Bias, and News Coverage of the DPP and KMT,” presented at the IDAS Conference on ‘Transformation and Challenges in the Asia-Pacific: The Next Decade and Beyond’, Taipei: National Chengchi University, November 23–24, 2018.

Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects in the Post-Arbitration South China Sea

Taiwan has taken a multifaceted approach to the Philippines v. China arbitration case and the South China Sea more broadly that has attempted to highlight its commitment to abiding by international law and promoting regional cooperation by shelving sovereignty disputes. The extent to which the Tribunal’s conclusions in its Award were detrimental to Taiwanese interests and addressed issues beyond the Philippines’ fifteen submissions took many policymakers, analysts, and legal experts by surprise. For Taiwan, the Award threatens to have profound diplomatic implications for its (1) capacity to participate in dispute management negotiations, (2) leverage in pushing for regional cooperation, (3) relations with mainland China, and (4) relations with countries and other actors that have sided with the Tribunal despite the controversy regarding some of its conclusions. In the post-arbitration context, Taiwan’s diplomatic policy options have become more limited, less feasible in terms of near- term implementation, and will require greater domestic and international commitment to accomplish in the long term. Nevertheless, the ROC government still has various policy options available to it. This chapter considers three of its diplomatic policy options for which it must make important choices in the post-arbitration context, including (1) whether it should maintain a hardline or flexible position on issues of territorial sovereignty, entitlements, and the inclusivity of international legal and diplomatic mechanisms; (2) whether or not – and if so, how – it should continue its vociferous advocacy of the “shelve disputes, promote cooperation” framework; and (3) whether or not it should clarify its eleven-dash line territorial claims to be in accordance with the Tribunal’s interpretations of international law.

Jonathan Spangler, “Taiwan’s Diplomatic Policy Options and Future Prospects in the Post-Arbitration South China Sea,” presented at the National Defense University/National Chengchi University Joint Conference, Taipei: National Defense University/National Chengchi University, December 16, 2016.

Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models, Teachers, and Students: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan

Recent years have seen an explosion in the popularity of online education, yet the impacts of online education on existing education models, teachers, and students are not fully understood. While the rise of online education is evident in countries around the world, students in East Asian societies have been particularly active in their online educational pursuits. This chapter seeks to further understand the significance of these trends by using empirical evidence from a nationwide survey conducted in collaboration with the Election Study Center in Taiwan. In particular, it aims to identify the impacts of online education on the existing education model, teachers, and students. The results indicated that online education has had major impacts on the existing education model. It was seen as more Western, active, top-down, and focused on knowledge acquisition than offline education, which suggests that offline education represents a significant departure from the approaches to teaching and learning that locals have come to expect. The perceived impacts on teachers included an encouragement of teaching quality improvement and lessened the overall burden. As for students, the perceived impacts have been mostly positive, with respondents viewing online education as encouraging independent learning, providing more opportunities to be critical of teachers, and not necessarily discouraging creativity or asking questions. Respondents also suggested that online education supplemented the breadth, depth, and richness of educational opportunities, suggesting that some respondents viewed local educational opportunities as inadequate. Detrimental impacts on students included decreased opportunities for face-to-face interaction with peers and teachers as well as mentions of assessment problems and student apathy.

Jonathan Spangler, “Impacts of Online Education on Existing Education Models, Teachers, and Students: Empirical Evidence from Taiwan,” presented at the Higher Education Research Association (HERA) Conference, Seoul: Higher Education Research Association, October 15–17, 2014.

Overcoming Inaction: Critical Pedagogy as Postmodern Feminist Action

Feminisms of classical lineage have affected changes of profound global impact. For well over a century, liberal, Marxist, socialist, and radical feminisms, among others, have had such a pervasive influence on laws and social norms around the world that what was once perceived as out-of-the-question is now accepted and even embraced within mainstream social paradigms. Despite their historical successes, these feminisms have been taken to task by postmodern feminist critiques for their inattention to the diverse realities of women around the world. Through a postmodern lens, these action-oriented feminisms have, for the most part, been shaped by and for higher-income women of Western countries and failed to take into account the distinct experiences of many around the world. Conversely, postmodern feminist theory, given its theoretical nature, has been criticized for failing to offer courses of action applicable to the greater feminist movement. While theoretically significant, postmodern feminism’s inaction has been seen as an obstacle to the advancement of the feminist cause. Such criticisms on both sides of the divide are valid and contribute to the further development of feminist theory. They do not, however, provide possibilities for incorporating elements of action into postmodern feminist discourse. This article argues that techniques in critical pedagogy offer one such possibility. Applying critical educational methodologies for incorporating feminist discourse into classrooms of various subjects, it proposes three tools for implementation: guided critical reflection, re-envisioning education as conscientization, and dialogic learning.

Jonathan Spangler, “Overcoming Inaction: Critical Pedagogy as Postmodern Feminist Action,” presented at the International Conference on Language and Communication (ICLC), Bangkok: National Institute of Development Administration, December 12–13, 2013.

Dissertations

South China Sea Tensions: State Involvement and Prediction Using GDELT Event Data


Jonathan Spangler, South China Sea Tensions: State Involvement and Prediction Using GDELT Event Data, Taipei: National Chengchi University, February 2018.

Intentions and Expectations versus Reality in Participatory Development: Case Studies from Peace Corps Ecuador


Jonathan Spangler, Intentions and Expectations versus Reality in Participatory Development: Case Studies from Peace Corps Ecuador, Ningbo: University of Nottingham Ningbo, China, November 21, 2009.